Global bit line pre-charge circuit that compensates for process, operating voltage, and temperature variations

ABSTRACT

A memory array includes wordlines, local bitlines, two-terminal memory elements, global bitlines, and local-to-global bitline pass gates and gain stages. The memory elements are formed between the wordlines and local bitlines. Each local bitline is selectively coupled to an associated global bitline, by way of an associated local-to-global bitline pass gate. During a read operation when a memory element of a local bitline is selected to be read, a local-to-global gain stage is configured to amplify a signal on or passing through the local bitline to an amplified signal on or along an associated global bitline. The amplified signal, which in one embodiment is dependent on the resistive state of the selected memory element, is used to rapidly determine the memory state stored by the selected memory element. The global bit line and/or the selected local bit line can be biased to compensate for the Process Voltage Temperature (PVT) variation.

PRIORITY

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.15/596,499, filed on May 16, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S.patent application Ser. No. 15/205,882, filed on Jul. 8, 2016, issued asU.S. Pat. No. 9,691,480, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 14/790,430, filed on Jul. 2, 2015, issued as U.S.Pat. No. 9,390,796, which is a continuation of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 13/935,105, filed on Jul. 3, 2013, issued as U.S. Pat. No.9,117,495, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 13/134,579, filed on Jun. 10, 2011, issued as U.S. Pat. No.8,891,276, and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.61/668,378, filed on Jul. 5, 2012, the entire contents of all areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

COPYRIGHT NOTICE

© 2013 Rambus, Inc. A portion of the disclosure of this patent documentcontains material that is subject to copyright protection. The copyrightowner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of thepatent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patentand Trademark Office patent file or records, but otherwise reserves allrights whatsoever available under 37 CFR § 1.71(d).

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to memory. More particularly,the present invention relates to non-volatile memory arrays and tomethods and apparatus for performing data operations on memory elementsof non-volatile memory arrays.

BACKGROUND

Flash memory is a type of non-volatile memory (NVM) used extensively assecondary storage and long-term persistent storage of electronic data.It is also widely used to store firmware of computers (e.g., the basicinput-output operating system (BIOS) of personal computers) and otherelectronic devices. In addition to being non-volatile, Flash memory iselectrically re-writable and requires no moving parts. These attributeshave made Flash memory popular for use in portable and battery-poweredelectronic devices, such as tablet and notebook computers, cell phones,smart phones, personal digital assistants, digital audio players anddigital cameras.

Increased processing capability and sophistication of computers andother electronic devices in recent years has led to an increase indemand for higher-capacity Flash memory. To fulfill this demand, Flashmemory manufacturers have increased capacity by scaling down thedimensions of the individual memory elements of the Flash memory so thata higher density of memory elements can be formed per given area of amemory array.

The memory elements in Flash memory comprise floating gate transistorsformed in a semiconducting material. Each floating gate transistor has afloating gate disposed over a thin tunnel dielectric layer between thedrain and source of the transistor. The floating gate transistor isprogrammed by injecting charge carriers (i.e., electrons) through thethin tunnel dielectric layer and into the floating gate. It is erased byremoving charge carriers from the floating gate through the thin tunneldielectric layer by a process known as quantum tunneling. Only so manyof these program and erase (P/E) cycles can be performed before the thintunnel dielectric layer wears out and the floating gate transistor is nolonger able to reliably store charge. The number of P/E cycles thatfloating gate transistors can endure decreases with scaling, and inrecent years there has been shown to be a fundamental limit to theextent to which floating gate transistors can be scaled withoutsuffering data retention problems. Further, a Flash memory cell requiresat least three terminals to access the memory cell for a data operation(e.g., a P/E cycle or a read operation). Moreover, Flash memory requiresa Flash operating system (Flash OS) and requires an erase operation(e.g., a block erase operation) prior to a write operation, therebyincreasing write latency times for write operations.

Alternative NVM technologies that avoid the scaling limits of Flashmemory have been proposed. Some of these alternative NVM technologieshave shown promise. However, various challenges exist to combining thememory elements of these alternative technologies in a high-capacitymemory array.

It would be desirable, therefore, to have high-capacity, re-writable,non-volatile two-terminal cross-point memory arrays that are based onalternative NVM technologies and which avoid the scaling limits andother limitations associated with Flash memory, such as an eraseoperation prior to a write operation and requiring more thantwo-terminals to access a memory cell for a data operation.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention and its various embodiments are more fully appreciated inconnection with the following detailed description taken in conjunctionwith the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing depicting a memory array, according to anembodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing depicting a memory array portion of thememory array depicted in FIG. 1;

FIG. 3 is a plan view drawing depicting a single-layer memory array,according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 4 is a block diagram depicting a memory, according to an embodimentof the present invention;

FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional drawing depicting a memory that includes amulti-layer cross-point memory array, according to an embodiment of thepresent invention;

FIG. 6 is a section drawing depicting how conductive vias are formed andused to connect global bitlines (GBLs) and local bitlines (LBLs) of thememory array in FIG. 5 to logic circuitry formed in an underlyingsemiconductor layer;

FIG. 7 is a perspective view depicting a section of Memory Layer 0 ofthe multi-layer cross-point memory array in FIG. 5 and associated LBLs,GBLs and WLs;

FIG. 8 is a section drawing depicting a modified version of themulti-layer cross-point memory array in FIG. 5 along a plane A-A thatcuts through the 0^(th) column (e.g., Col 0) in each of memory layers:Memory Layer 0, Memory Layer 1, . . . , Memory Layer P of the modifiedmemory array;

FIG. 9 is a perspective drawing depicting how a plurality of memoryarray portions are configured along a WL group, according to anembodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 10 is a perspective drawing depicting a multi-layer cross-pointmemory array, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 11A and 11B are perspective drawings depicting a conductive metaloxide (CMO) based memory element including mobile oxygen ions which maybe used to implement the memory elements of the memory arrays of thepresent invention, the drawing in FIG. 11A depicting an example of theCMO-based memory element in a low-resistance, erased state and thedrawing in FIG. 11B depicting an example of the CMO-based memory elementin a high-resistance, programmed state;

FIGS. 11C and 11D are perspective drawings depicting a CMO-based basedmemory element in an erased and programmed state respectively, during aread operation where a read voltage is applied across the terminals ofthe memory element to generate a read current;

FIG. 11E depicts top plan views of a wafer processed FEOL to form aplurality of base layer die including active circuitry and an electricalinterconnect structure and the same wafer subsequently processed BEOL tointegrally form one layer or multiple layers of memory and theirrespective memory elements directly on top of the base layer die wherethe finished die can subsequently be singulated, tested, and packagedinto integrated circuits;

FIG. 11F depicts a graphical representation of an example of anon-linear I-V characteristic for a discrete memory element withintegral selectivity;

FIG. 12 is a schematic drawing depicting a section of a memory array ofthe present invention, illustrating one example of how a selected memoryelement is read during a read operation;

FIG. 13 is a drawing depicting the voltages Vgbl0 and Vlbl on GBL0 andLBL Y0-0<0> versus time during a read operation;

FIG. 14 is a schematic drawing depicting a section of a memory array ofthe present invention, illustrating one example of how a selected memoryelement is programmed during a program operation; and

FIG. 15 is a schematic drawing depicting a section of a memory array ofthe present invention, illustrating one example of how a selected memoryelement is erased during an erase operation.

FIG. 16 is a flow chart illustrating an example process for compensatingfor process, operating voltage, and temperature variations in the memoryarray of FIG. 1.

FIG. 17 is a flow chart illustrating another example process forcompensating for process, operating voltage, and temperature variationsin the memory array of FIG. 1.

FIGS. 18A-D illustrates a sequence of steps to compensate for PVTvariation in a memory array with local bit lines and local-to-globalbitline pass gates and gain stages in accordance with the exampleprocess of FIG. 17.

Like reference numerals refer to corresponding parts throughout theseveral views of the drawings. Note that most of the reference numeralsinclude one or two left-most digits that generally identify the figurethat first introduces that reference number. The depictions in thevarious drawing figures are not necessarily to scale.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Two-terminal cross-point memory arrays employing discrete re-writeablenon-volatile two-terminal memory elements are disclosed. An exemplarymemory array includes a plurality of wordlines (WLs), a plurality oflocal bitlines (LBLs), a plurality of discrete re-writeable non-volatiletwo-terminal memory elements formed between the WLs and LBLs, aplurality of switching devices that selectively electrically couple theplurality of LBLs to a plurality of global bitlines (GBLs), and aplurality of amplifiers (e.g., gain stages) configured between theplurality of LBLs and the plurality of GBLs. Hereinafter, the discretere-writeable non-volatile two-terminal memory elements will be referredto as memory element or memory elements.

During times when a selected memory element is being programmed orerased, the LBL associated with the selected memory element iselectrically coupled with an associated GBL via one of the switchingdevices. During times when a selected memory element is being read, theswitching device associated with the LBL is switched opened so that theLBL is electrically isolated from its associated GBL, and a read voltageis then applied across the selected memory element. The applied readvoltage causes current to flow through the selected memory element andcharge the capacitance of the LBL to a local bit line voltage. The localbit line voltage depends on the memory state of the selected memoryelement and is amplified by the gain stage and conducted along the GBLthat is associated with the LBL. The amplified current, or other relatedsignal on the GBL, is then sensed by a sense amplifier or measured bysome other measuring circuit, to determine the stored memory state ofthe selected memory element. In addition to performing an amplifyingfunction, the gain stage serves to isolate the capacitances of the LBLfrom the much larger capacitance of the associated GBL. Together, theamplification and isolation functions of the amplifiers allow data to beread from the memory array at a high rate.

According to one aspect of the invention, the plurality of switchingdevices, plurality of amplifiers, plurality of GBLs, and othersupporting logic used to exercise and control the operation of thememory array are formed in a semiconductor substrate or in asemiconductor epitaxial layer, in accordance with afront-end-of-the-line (FEOL) integrated circuit manufacturing process(e.g., a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) process). TheWLs, LBLs, and memory elements of the memory array are not formed in thesemiconductor substrate or semiconductor epitaxial layer. Rather, theyare formed in a plurality of WL, LBL, and memory layers directly abovethe semiconductor substrate or semiconductor layer, in accordance with aback-end-of-the-line (BEOL) process. The resulting integrated circuit(IC) comprises a single semiconductor die that includes a FEOL circuitryportion and a BEOL memory portion that is in direct contact with and isfabricated directly above the FEOL circuitry portion such that thesemiconductor die is a monolithically fabricated unitary whole. The BEOLmemory portion includes one or more BEOL memory layers. With multipleBEOL memory layers, each memory layer is in contact with an adjacentmemory layer and the multiple layers are vertically stacked upon oneanother. A plurality of electrically conductive vias are formed throughthe various layers (e.g., FEOL and BEOL layers) to electrically couplethe plurality of WLs and LBLs to the switching devices, amplifiers,plurality of GBLs, and supporting logic in the underlying FEOLsemiconductor substrate or semiconductor epitaxial layer. Forming thememory array in this manner allows the memory elements of the memoryarray to be tightly integrated and vertically stacked in multiple memorylayers, resulting in a high-storage density, high-capacity,three-dimensional memory array that avoids the scaling limits offloating-gate-transistor-based Flash memory.

Referring to FIG. 1 there is shown a memory array 100, according to anembodiment of the present invention. The memory array 100 comprises aplurality of memory array portions 102, each associated with one of(M+1) wordline (WL) groups and one of N+1 global bitlines (GBLs) GBL0,GBL1 . . . GBLN, where M and N are integers greater than or equal tozero. As can be observed in the more detailed drawing of the memoryarray portion 102 in FIG. 2, each memory array portion 102 includes alocal bitline (LBL) 106, a pass gate transistor 204, and a gain stagetransistor 206. K+1 memory elements 104 are coupled between each LBL 106and K+1 WLs 108 of an associated WL group, where K is an integer greaterthan or equal to zero. The number of memory elements 104 per LBL 106 isset during design and determined by a number of factors, including butnot limited to: overall memory array size, required operationparameters, program and/or erase operation parameters, type of memoryelements 104 used, inter-element parasitic resistances and capacitanceson the LBL 106, resistance and capacitance of the LBL's associated GBL,and the transconductance of the gain stage transistor 206, for example.Examples of operation parameters include but are not limited to readcurrent, write current, program current, erase current, read speed,write speed, read disturb, write disturb, and half-select ratios, justto name a few.

Using LBLs and the pass gate and gain stage transistors 204 and 206(e.g., pass gate/gain stage block 202) reduces loading on the GBLsduring data operations on memory elements 104 in the array 100 andminimizes interferences on the GBLs attributable to other memoryelements 104 in the array 100 that are not selected for the dataoperation (e.g., half-selected memory elements 104). As will bedescribed in more detail below, an LBL 106 of a given memory arrayportion 102 is electrically coupled to its associated GBL by way of itspass gate 204 when a memory element 104 positioned between a selected WL108 and the LBL 106 is being written to (e.g., is being programmed orerased). The LBL's pass gate 204 is turned on by applying a pass gatecontrol signal along a pass gate control signal line 112 electricallycoupled with the gate of the pass gate 204.

In one embodiment of the invention, the gain stage transistor 206 ofeach LBL 106 is configured as a common source amplifier. The function ofthe gain stage transistor 206 is twofold: first, to isolate thecapacitances of its LBL 106 from the capacitance of the LBL's associatedGBL during read operations, and second, to amplify a signal thatdevelops on the LBL 106 during read operations of a selected memoryelement to an amplified signal on or along the associated GBL. Theamplified signal is representative of the stored memory state of theselected memory element 104. Together, this twofold function results ina faster read speed than can be realized in the absence of the gainstage transistor 206.

It should be mentioned that whereas a single-transistor amplifier isused to implement the gain stage 206 of each pass gate/gain stage 202 inthe exemplary embodiments of the inventions described herein, otheramplifying structures, e.g., amplifiers having more than one transistorand/or amplifiers of types other than a source amplifier, may be used asalternatives. Further, whereas a pass gate transistor 204 is used toimplement the switching device between an LBL 106 and its associatedGBL, any suitable switching device may be used.

FIG. 3 is a plan view of a physical implementation of a memory array300, according to an embodiment of the invention. Note that to avoidunnecessary obfuscation, the depiction of the memory array 300 includesonly three WL groups and only three LBLs 106 per GBL. In an actualimplementation there would typically be many more WL groups and manymore LBLs per GBL (e.g., hundreds of LBLs per GBL). The memory array 300is arranged in a “cross-point” configuration such that WLs 108 of WLGroups: WL Group 0, WL Group 1 and WL Group 2 extend horizontally (e.g.,in the x-direction) as rows in a first x-y plane (e.g., in a “WLlayer”). The LBLs 106 extend vertically (e.g., in the y-direction) ascolumns in a second x-y plane (e.g., in an “LBL layer”) above and/orbelow the WL layer. And memory elements 104 are formed between eachintersecting WL and LBL (e.g., positioned between a cross-point of a WLs108 with a LBL 106). In other embodiments, WLs 108 can extend verticallyin the y-direction and LBLs 106 can extend horizontally in thex-direction (not shown).

The GBLs: GBL0, GBL1, . . . , GBLN, and the transistors used toimplement the pass gates/gain stage blocks 202 are formed FEOL beneaththe BEOL WL, LBL, memory elements, and memory layer(s) in asemiconductor substrate or in a semiconductor epitaxial layer grown on asubstrate, along with transistors and other circuit elements used toform the sense and control circuitry for the memory array 300, andoptionally circuitry for other purposes such as a micro-controller (μC),a microprocessor (μP), FPGA, digital signal processor (DSP), statemachine, just to name a few.

The LBLs 106, WLs 108, and GBLs comprise conductive lines made from anelectrically conductive material, such as a metal (e.g., aluminum,copper or tungsten), a metal alloy, or other non-metal conductivematerial such as a conductive ceramic or conductive metal oxide, forexample.

In one embodiment of the invention, the memory elements 104 comprisetwo-terminal devices made from a material capable of storing two or morememory states, and are formed as memory “plugs” in a memory layerdisposed between WL and LBL layers such that a memory element 104 ispositioned at and between each intersection (e.g., a cross-point) of aWL 108 with its associated LBL 106.

Arranging the memory array 300 in this “cross-point” configurationmaximizes memory density and affords the ability to read data from orwrite data to memory elements 104 on a single bit basis, orsimultaneously on a nibble, byte, word, page, block, or other higher-bitbasis. In FIG. 3, for example, an individual memory element 304 at theintersection of a WL 108 of WL Group 2 and an LBL 106 in GBL 7 is shownas being accessed during the reading or writing of a single bit of datab7, and a string of memory elements 308 at the intersections of a WL 108of WL Group 0 and LBLs 106 in columns 0-7 is shown as being accessedduring the reading or writing of a byte 310 of data b0, b1, . . . , b7.In some embodiments of the invention, erasing may also or alternativelybe performed on a bit basis, a multiple-bit basis, a block basis, or apage basis, where a block comprise one or more pages and a pagecomprises a plurality of bytes, words or higher-bit group of memoryelements 104 along multiple WLs. Furthermore, in some embodiments of theinvention, a write operation to one or more memory elements 104 does notrequire a prior erase operation, unlike Flash memory.

Memory elements 104 of the memory array 300 are selected to be read orwritten to under the control of sense and control circuitry 402, asillustrated in the block diagram of the memory 400 in FIG. 4. Examplesof write operations include a program operation and an erase operation.The sense and control circuitry 402 includes sense amplifiers 404 anddecoder/driver circuitry 406. The sense amplifiers 404 are coupled tothe GBLs: GBL0, GBL1, GBLN of the memory array 300, and are used duringread operations to sense currents or voltages indicative of data beingstored (e.g., distinct resistive states) by the memory elements 104. Thedecoder/driver circuitry 406 includes a row decoder 408, column decoder410, LBL decoder 412 and access voltage generators 414. The row andcolumn decoders 408 and 410 are configured to decode addresses thatidentify memory elements 104 associated with one or more WLs (e.g.,rows) and one or more GBLs (e.g., columns) in the array 300. The LBLdecoder 412 is configured to generate the pass gate control signals forthe pass gates 204 of the LBLs 106, depending on the address received bythe decoder/driver circuitry 406.

As an example of how the decoder/driver circuitry 406 operates, considera program operation in which an address received by the decoder/drivercircuitry 406 identifies the string of memory elements 308 in FIG. 3 asthe memory elements 104 to be programmed. Upon receiving the address,the row decoder 408 decodes a row-identifying portion of the address toselect the appropriate WL 108 in WL Group 0 that intersects with thestring of memory elements 308 and the column decoder 410 decodes acolumn-identifying portion of the address to determine the columns andGBLs associated with the string of memory elements 308. Meanwhile, alsobased on the received address, the LBL decoder 412 generates pass gatecontrol signals for the pass gates 204 of the LBLs 106 associated WLGroup 0. The pass gate control signals are routed along the pass gatecontrol lines 112 to the gates of the pass gates 204 of the associatedLBLs 106, turning the pass gates 204 on so that the associated LBLs 106are electrically coupled with their respective GBLs during the programoperation.

Access voltage generators 414 operate in cooperation with the row,column and LBL decoders 408, 410 and 412, to generate select voltages(e.g., read, program and erase voltages) for selected WLs, unselectvoltages for unselected WLs, precharge voltages for the GBLs: GBL0, GBL1GBLN, and bias voltages for the gain stage transistors 206. Furtherdetails of the read, program and erase operations are provided below.

The memory array 100 in FIG. 1 has (M+1) LBLs 106 per column, K+1 memoryelements 104 per LBL 106, and (N+1) memory elements per row, resultingin a memory array having (K+1)(M+1)(N+1) memory elements 104. The totalnumber of memory elements 104 in the memory array 100 can be furtherincreased, without increasing the lateral (e.g., x-y) dimensions of thearray, by “vertically stacking” LBLs 106, WLs 108 and associated memoryelements 104 one over the other in the form of a multi-layer orthree-dimensional cross-point memory array. This approach is illustratedin FIG. 5, which is a cross-sectional drawing of a memory 500 having amulti-layer cross-point memory array 502, in accordance with anotherembodiment of the present invention. The multi-layer cross-point memoryarray 502 in FIG. 5 has essentially the same lateral (e.g., x-y)dimensions as the single-layer cross-point memory array 100 in FIG. 1but has four memory layers: Memory Layer 0, Memory Layer 1, Memory Layer2, Memory Layer 3, instead of just one, resulting in an array 502 withfour times as many memory elements 104 as the single-layer memory array100 in FIG. 1. (It should be noted that whereas four memory layers:Memory Layer 0, Memory Layer 1, Memory Layer 2, Memory Layer 3 are shownand described in this exemplary embodiment, multi-layer cross-pointmemory arrays having two, three or more than four memory layers couldalso be made using the principles and concepts of the present inventionand the number of memory elements per layer will be applicationdependent.)

Each of the memory layers: Memory Layer 0, Memory Layer 1, Memory Layer2 is disposed between one of LBL Layers: LBL Layer 0, LBL Layer 1, LBLLayer 2, and one of WL Layers: WL Layer 0 and WL Layer 1. For example,Memory Layer 1 is disposed between WL Layer 0 and LBL Layer 1. LBLs inthe LBL Layers: LBL Layer 0, LBL Layer 1, LBL Layer 2 are orthogonal tothe WLs in the WL Layers: WL Layer 0 and WL Layer 1, so that a singlememory element 104 is interposed between each crossing LBL and WL (e.g.,ME 104 is positioned between a cross-point of a LBL and a WL).

To limit the x-y dimensions of the overall memory 500, the GBLs, thepass gates 204 and gain stage transistors 206 of the LBLs of the memoryarray 502 and all, substantially all, or a significant portion of thesense and control circuitry 504 are formed directly beneath the WL, LBLand memory layers of the memory array 502, specifically, in anunderlying semiconductor substrate 506 (e.g., a silicon wafer or silicondie) or semiconductor epitaxial layer 508. The sense and controlcircuitry 504, GBLs, pass gates 204 and gain stage transistors 206 arefabricated in accordance with a front-end-of-the-line (FEOL) integratedcircuit semiconductor manufacturing process, such as a complementarymetal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) process. In one embodiment of theinvention, a triple-well CMOS process is used. By forming the GBLs, passgates 204 and gain stage transistors 206 of the LBLs of the memory array502 and all, substantially all, or a significant portion of the senseand control circuitry 504 beneath the WL, LBL and memory layers of thememory array 502, more die per substrate (e.g., die per wafer) can beproduced. Forming the memory 500 in this manner also frees up valuablesilicon area for other circuitry, which can be especially desirable inembedded applications.

The WLs, memory elements 104 and LBLs of the cross-point memory array502 are formed in a back-end-of-the-line (BEOL) process that followsprior FEOL processing. Specifically, in the BEOL process, alternatinglayers of WLs: WL Layer 0, WL Layer 1, memory layers: Memory Layer 0,Memory Layer 1, Memory Layer 2, Memory Layer 3, and LBLs: LBL Layer 0,LBL Layer 1, LBL Layer 2 are formed along the +Z axis (see FIG. 5)directly on top of the uppermost FEOL layer (e.g., an uppermost surface516 s of layer 516). The memory elements 104 in each of the memorylayers: Memory Layer 0, Memory Layer 1, Memory Layer 2, Memory Layer 3are electrically isolated from one another by intra-memory-elementdielectric material 518 (e.g., silicon oxide or silicon nitride). TheBEOL portions are not separate layers or structures that are connectedwith the FEOL portion using conventional processes such as waferbonding, multi-chip modules, soldering, etc. Rather, the BEOL portionsare fabricated (e.g., grown) directly on top of the FEOL portion suchthat the resulting memory 500 or other IC component comprises a singleunitary die that can be subsequently singulated (e.g., sawed or cut froma silicon wafer) and optionally placed in a suitable IC package.

In one embodiment, GBLs: GBL0, GBL1, . . . , GBLN of the memory array502 are formed FEOL in one or more metal layers 514 above other FEOLstructures such as pre-metal dielectric, metallization and inter-metaldielectric (IMD) layers 510 and 512 (as shown in FIG. 5). In otherembodiments of the invention, the GBLs: GBL0, GBL1, . . . GBLN areformed FEOL in one or more of the metallization layers of themetallization and IMD layers 512. In yet another embodiment, the GBLs:GBL0, GBL1, . . . , GBLN are formed BEOL in one or more metal layersabove the uppermost WL and LBL layers of the memory array 502 (notshown). In embodiments where the GBLs: GBL0, GBL1, . . . , GBLN areformed FEOL in GBL layer(s) 514 (as in FIG. 5), the GBLs areelectrically coupled with their associated sense amplifiers by one ormore inter-layer interconnects (e.g., vias) 602 formed through the PMD,metallization and IMD layers 510 and 512, as illustrated in FIG. 6. Vias602 are also formed through the various layers below the conductive WLand LBL layers, to electrically connect the WLs to the sense and controlcircuitry 504 and the LBLs to their associated pass gates 204 and gainstage transistors 206.

The configuration for the BEOL portion (e.g., portion along +Z axisabove line 516 s) depicted in FIG. 5 can have alternate orientations.For example, instead of the memory layers 0-3 being vertically stackedsuch that an axis 104 s of the memory elements 104 is aligned with theZ-axis, the axis 104 s can be rotated to align with the X-axis or theY-axis. In FIG. 5, the direction for the Y-axis is into and out of thepage of the drawing sheet. As one example of an alternativeconfiguration for the BEOL portion, the entire BEOL portion can berotated R_(BEOL) 90 degrees (e.g., clockwise or counter clockwise)relative to the Z-axis such that axis 104 a is aligned with the X-axisinstead of the Z-axis. In this rotated configuration, the vias (e.g.,602) from the FEOL portion (e.g., portion along −Z axis below line 516s) can be configured to connect with the appropriate WLs and LBLs in therotated configuration. In the rotated configuration, the WLs are alignedwith the Z-axis and the memory layers 0-3 span left-to-right along theline 516 s and are aligned with the X-axis in the same direction as theaxis 104 a of the memory elements 104. Another rotation can align thememory layers 0-3 and the axis 104 a of the memory elements 104 with theY-axis, for example. Therefore, the configuration of the structuralelements of the BEOL portion are not limited to those depicted in FIG. 5or other FIGS. herein and alternative configurations of the BEOL portionmay be used.

FIG. 7 is a perspective view of an array portion 700 of the multi-layercross-point memory array 502 in FIG. 5, further illustrating therelationship among WLs, LBLs, GBLs, and pass gate/gain stage blocks 202of the memory array 502. The memory array portion 700 includes memoryelements 104 from Col 0 and Col 1 of Memory Layer 1, which is disposedbetween WL Layer 0 and LBL Layer 1. WL Layer 0 includes WLs X0-0, X0-1,X0-3, . . . X0-m, where the “0” next to the “Xs” is used to indicatethat the WLs are from WL Layer 0 and m is a positive integer used torepresent the total number of WLs in WL Layer 0 (and the other WL layersof the memory array 502). Two columns (Col 0 and Col 1) of LBL Layer 1of the memory array 502 are included in the array portion 700. In thisand subsequent drawings, the LBLs in Col 0 are identified using thenomenclature: Y1-0<0>, Y1-0<1> . . . Y1-0<M>, where the “1” in “Y1” isused to indicate that the LBLs are from LBL Layer 1, the “−0” is used toindicate that the LBLs are in Col 0, and, <0>, <1>, . . . , <M> areindices used to identify each of the M LBLs in Col 0, where M is aninteger representing the total number of LBLs per column of the memoryarray 502. A similar notation is used to identify LBLs in other portionsof the memory array 502. For example, “Y2-N-<M>” identifies the LBL thatis in the Mth position of Col N of Memory Layer 2 of the memory array502.

The LBLs in a given column share the same FEOL GBL via their respectiveFEOL pass gate/gain stage blocks 202. For example, LBLs: Y1-0<0>,Y1-0<1> . . . Y1-0<M> in Col 0 share GBL0 via their respective passgate/gain stage blocks 202 and LBLs: Y1-1<0>, Y1-1<1> . . . Y1-1<M>along Col 1 share GBL1 via their respective pass gate/gain stage blocks202. Similar associations of LBLs to GBLs are formed in the othercolumns (e.g., Col 2, Col 3, . . . Col N) of the memory array 502.

The WLs of each WL layer are apportioned into M BEOL WL Groups: WL Group0, WL Group 1 WL Group M. In the exemplary array portion 700 in FIG. 7it is assumed that there are only two WLs per WL group, in order tosimplify illustration, so that each LBL is associated with four memoryelements—two from Memory Layer 1 and two from the memory layer above theLBL (e.g., Memory Layer 2). In practice, however, there would typicallybe many more WLs per WL group and, consequently, many more memoryelements 104 associated with each LBL (e.g., hundreds or thousands ofmemory elements 104 associated with each LBL).

In the exemplary multi-layer cross-point memory array 502 describedabove, the LBLs are confined to independent x-y co-planar LBL Layers:LBL Layer 0, LBL Layer 1, and LBL Layer 2. In other embodiments of theinvention, the LBLs are configured to also extend further in the+Z-direction so that they span two or more memory layers. For example,in FIG. 8, which is a section view of a modified version of themulti-layer cross-point memory array 502 in FIG. 5 along cutting planeA-A, LBLs from even-numbered LBL layers are electrically coupled withone another, by way of conductive vias 801, so that the LBLs extend inthe +Z-direction and span multiple memory layers. (Note that for amemory array having more than four memory layers, the odd-numbered LBLlayers would also be electrically coupled with one another.)

Spanning LBLs through multiple memory layers results in a multi-layercross-point memory array having a plurality of “stacked-up” memory arrayportions 802, each including one or more groups of stacked-up memoryelements 804, two or more stacked-up LBLs, and two or more stacked-upWLs. FIG. 9 illustrates how a plurality of these memory array portions802 are configured along WLs X0-0, X0-1, X1-0 and X1-1, wherecollectively WLs X0-0, X0-1, X1-0 and X1-1 comprise a WL group 902(e.g., WL Group 0). WL group 902 includes a first WL subgroup 904 havingWLs X0-0 and X0-1 from WL Layer 0 and a second WL subgroup 906 havingWLs X1-0 and X1-1 from WL Layer 1. A total of N+1 memory array portions802 are configured along the WL group 902. The LBLs in even-numbered LBLlayers are selectively coupled to their associated GBLs via theirrespective pass gate/gain stage blocks 202, and the LBLs in odd-numberedLBL layers are selectively coupled to their associated GBLs via theirrespective pass gate/gain stage blocks 202. For example, LBLs Y0-1<0>and Y2-1<0>, which are electrically coupled with one another to form aspanning LBL in Col 1 of the memory array, are selectively electricallycoupled with GBL1 via their respective and common pass gate/gain stageblock 202 and LBL Y1-1<0> is selectively coupled to GBL1 via itsrespective pass gate/gain stage blocks 202.

FIG. 10 is a drawing depicting how a plurality of stacked-up memoryarray portions 802 is configured to form a complete multi-layercross-point memory array 1000. The complete multi-layer cross-pointmemory array 1000 includes N+1 memory array portions 802 per column andM+1 memory array portions 802 associated with the M+1 WL groups. Itshould be emphasized that, like the other cross-point memory arrays ofthe present invention, the GBLs and pass gate/gain stage blocks 202 areformed FEOL in a semiconductor substrate or semiconductor epitaxiallayer, beneath the BEOL WL, LBL and memory layers of the memory array1000. (See the FEOL and BEOL description above.)

The memory elements 104 of the memory arrays of the present inventioncomprise re-writable two-terminal non-volatile devices made from amaterial capable of storing two or more memory states (e.g., at least1-bit of data). In one embodiment of the invention, the memory elements104 comprise discrete, non-volatile, re-writable resistive memoryelements made from a conductive metal oxide (CMO) material, such asdescribed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/095,026, filed Mar. 30,2005, and published as U.S. Pub. No. 2006/0171200, and entitled “MemoryUsing Mixed Valence Conductive Oxides”, U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/653,836, filed Dec. 18, 2009, and published as U.S. Pub. No.2010/0157658, and entitled “Conductive Metal Oxide Structures InNon-Volatile Re-Writable Memory Devices”; U.S. patent application Ser.No. 11/881,496, filed Jul. 26, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,897,951, andentitled “Continuous Plane Of Thin-Film Materials For A Two-TerminalCross-Point Memory”; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/653,851,filed Dec. 18, 2009, and published as U.S. Pub. No. 2010/0159641, andentitled “Memory Cell Formation Using Ion Implant Isolated ConductiveMetal Oxide”, all contents of which are incorporated herein by referencein their entirety for all purposes. In other embodiments of theinvention, the memory elements 104 comprise phase change (e.g.,chalcogenide) memory elements, filamentary resistive random-accessmemory (RRAM) elements, interfacial RRAM elements, magnetoresistive RAM(MRAM), MEMRISTOR memory elements, and programmable metallization cells(e.g., conductive bridging RAM (CBRAM) cells). It should be mentioned,however, that other types of memory elements, whether based on resistivestates or on some other memory storing mechanism, whether re-writable ornot, and/or whether volatile or non-volatile, may be alternatively used.

FIGS. 11A and 11B are perspective drawings of one example of a CMO-basedmemory element 1100 that can be used to implement the memory elements104 of memory arrays of various embodiments of the present invention.FIG. 11A depicts the CMO-based memory element 1100 in an erased statewhere mobile oxygen ions 1105 that were previously transported from theCMO 1102 into the IMO 1104 are transported 1120 back into the CMO 1102to change a conductivity profile of the memory element 1100 to theerased state (e.g., a low resistance state). FIG. 11B depicts theCMO-based memory element 1100 in a programmed state where a portion ofthe mobile ions 1105 in the CMO 1102 are transported 1120 into the IMO1104 to change the conductivity profile of the memory element to theprogrammed state (e.g., a high resistance state). The CMO-based memoryelement 1100 comprises a multi-layered structure that includes at leastone CMO layer 1102 that includes mobile oxygen ions 1105. An insulatingmetal oxide (IMO) layer 1104 is in contact with the CMO layer 1102. TheCMO layer 1102 is electrically coupled with a bottom electrode 1106 andthe IMO layer 1104 is electrically coupled with a top electrode 1108such that the CMO layer 1102 and IMO layer 1104 are electrically inseries with each other and with the top and bottom electrodes 1108 and1106. For example, when configured in one of the memory arrays of thepresent invention, the bottom electrode 1106 is electrically coupledwith one of the WLs 1114 of the memory array and the top electrode 1108is electrically coupled with one of the LBLs 1110.

The CMO layer 1102 comprises an ionic conductor that is electricallyconductive and includes mobile oxygen ions 1105. The material for theCMO layer 1102 has a crystalline structure (e.g., single crystalline orpolycrystalline) and the crystalline structure does not change due todata operations on the memory element 1100. For example, read and writeoperations to the memory element 1100 do not alter the crystallinestructure of the CMO layer 1102.

The IMO layer 1104 comprises a high-k dielectric material having asubstantially uniform thickness approximately less than 50 Angstroms andis an ionic conductor that is electrically insulating. The IMO layer1104 is operative as a tunnel barrier that is configured for electrontunneling during data operations to the memory element 1100 and as anelectrolyte to the mobile oxygen ions 1105 and is permeable to themobile oxygen ions 1105 during write operations to the memory element1100 such that during write operations oxygen ions 1105 are transported1120 between the CMO and IMO layers 1102 and 1104.

In various embodiments, in regards to the layers 1102 and 1104 of FIGS.11A-D, the layer 1102 can include one or more layers of a conductivemetal oxide material, such as one or more layers of a conductive metaloxide-based (“CMO-based”) material, for example. The CMO material isselected for it properties as a variable resistive material thatincludes mobile oxygen ions and is not selected based on anyferroelectric properties, piezoelectric properties, magnetic properties,superconductive properties, or for any mobile metal ion properties. Invarious embodiments, layer 1102 can include but is not limited to amanganite material, a perovskite material selected from one or more thefollowing: PrCaMnO_(x) (PCMO), LaNiO_(x) (LNO), SrRuO_(x) (SRO),LaSrCrO_(x) (LSCrO), LaCaMnO_(x) (LCMO), LaSrCaMnO_(x) (LSCMO),LaSrMnO_(x) (LSMO), LaSrCoO_(x) (LSCoO), and LaSrFeO_(x) (LSFeO), wherex is nominally 3 for perovskites (e.g., x≤3 for perovskites) orstructure 269 can be a conductive binary oxide structure comprised of abinary metal oxide having the form A_(x)O_(y), where A represents ametal and O represents oxygen. The conductive binary oxide material maybe doped (e.g., with niobium Nb, fluorine F, and/or nitrogen N) toobtain the desired conductive properties for a CMO.

In various embodiments, layer 1104 can include but is not limited to amaterial for implementing a tunnel barrier layer and is also anelectrolyte that is permeable to the mobile oxygen ions 1105 at voltagesfor write operations. Suitable materials for the layer 1104 include butare not limited to one or more of the following: high-k dielectricmaterials, rare earth oxides, rare earth metal oxides, yttria-stabilizedzirconium (YSZ), zirconia (ZrO_(x)), yttrium oxide (Y0_(x)), erbiumoxide (ErO_(x)), gadolinium oxide (GdO_(x)), lanthanum aluminum oxide(LaAlO_(x)), and hafnium oxide (HfO_(x)), aluminum oxide (AlOx), siliconoxide (SiOx), and equivalent materials. Typically, the layer 1104comprises a thin film layer having a substantially uniform thickness ofapproximately less than 50 Angstroms (e.g., in a range from about 5Angstroms to about 35 Angstroms).

When in an erased state, as depicted in FIG. 11A, mobile oxygen ions1105 (denoted by the small black-filled circles in FIGS. 11A-D) areconcentrated in the CMO layer 1102 and the CMO-based memory element 1100exhibits a low resistance to current (e.g., is in a low-resistancestate). The CMO-based memory element 1100 is programmed to a programmedstate (FIG. 11B) by applying a positive voltage across the top andbottom electrodes 1108 and 1106. The applied voltage creates an electricfield E2 within the layers 1102 and 1104 that transports 1120 the oxygenions 1105 from the CMO layer 1102 into the IMO layer 1104, causing theCMO-based memory element 1100 to conform to a high resistance,programmed state. When an erase voltage of reverse polarity is appliedacross the top and bottom electrodes 1108 and 1106, the mobile oxygenions 1105 are transported 1120 back into the CMO layer 1102 (FIG. 11A)in response to electric field E1, returning the CMO-based memory element1100 to a low-resistance, erased state. Writing data to the memoryelement 1102 does not require a prior erase operation and once data iswritten to the memory element 1100, the data is retained in the absenceof electrical power. Although erase and program voltages have beendescribed as examples of a write operation, writing data to the memoryelement 1100 requires application of write voltage potentials having anappropriate magnitude and polarity to the terminals of the memoryelement 1100 (e.g., applied to WL 1114 and LBL 1110 of a selected memoryelement(s)). In FIGS. 11C and 11D, reading data stored in the memoryelement 1100 requires application of read voltage potentials having anappropriate magnitude and polarity to the terminals of the memoryelement 1100 (e.g., applied to WL 1114 and LBL 1110 of a selected memoryelement(s)). The read voltage is operative to generate a read currentI_(READ) that flows through the memory element 1100 while the readvoltage is applied. The magnitude of the read voltage and the resistivevalue of the data stored in the selected memory element 1100 determinethe magnitude of the read current I_(READ). In FIG. 11C, the memoryelement 1100 is depicted in the erased state (e.g., low resistancestate) and in FIG. 11D the memory element 1100 is depicted in theprogrammed state (e.g., high resistance state). Therefore, given thesame magnitude of read voltage (e.g., 1.5V), the read current I_(READ1)will have a higher magnitude (e.g., due to the lower resistance state)depicted in FIG. 11C than the read current I_(READ2) depicted in FIG.11D due to the higher resistance of the programmed state (i.e.,I_(READ1)>I_(READ2)). Application of the read voltage does not causemobile oxygen ion 1105 transport 1120 because the magnitude of the readvoltage is less than the magnitude of the write voltage and thereforethe read voltage does not generate an electric field having sufficientmagnitude to cause mobile oxygen ion 1105 transport 1120 during readoperations. Therefore, it is not necessary to re-write the data storedin the memory element 1100 after a read operation because the readoperation is non-destructive to the stored data (e.g., does not corruptor significantly disturb the stored data).

Once the CMO-based memory element 1100 is programmed or erased to eitherstate, the memory element 1100 maintains that state even in the absenceof electrical power. In other words, the CMO-based memory element 1100is a non-volatile memory element. Therefore, no battery backup or otherpower source, such as a capacitor or the like, is required to retainstored data. The two resistive states are used to represent twonon-volatile memory states, e.g., logic “0” and logic “1.” In additionto being non-volatile, the CMO-based memory element 1100 is re-writablesince it can be programmed and erased over and over again. Theseadvantages along with the advantage of being able to stack thetwo-terminal CMO-based memory elements in one or more memory layersabove FEOL semiconductor process layers, are some of the advantages thatmake the CMO-based memory arrays of the present invention a viable andcompetitive alternative to other non-volatile memory technologies suchas Flash memory. In other embodiments, the memory element 1100 storestwo or more bits of non-volatile data (e.g., MLC) that arerepresentative of more than two logic states such as: “00”; “01”; “10”;and “11”, for example. Those logic states can represent ahard-programmed state “00”, a soft-programmed state “01”, a soft-erasedstate “10”, and a hard-erased state “11”, and their associatedconductivity values (e.g., resistive states). Different magnitudes andpolarities of the write voltage applied in one or more pulses that canhave varying pulse shapes and durations can be used to perform writeoperations on the memory element 1100 configured for SLC and/or MLC.

FIG. 11E is a top plan view depicting a single wafer (denoted as 1170and 1170′) at two different stages of fabrication on the same wafer:FEOL processing on the wafer denoted as 1170 during the FEOL stage ofmicroelectronics processing where active circuitry (e.g., CMOScircuitry) in logic layer 508 is fabricated on the substrate thatcomprises base layer die 506 (e.g., a silicon wafer); followed by BEOLprocessing on the same wafer denoted as 1170′ during the BEOL stage ofmicroelectronics processing where one or more layers (e.g., 1151 or1150) of BEOL non-volatile memory are fabricated directly on top of theFEOL logic layer 508 (e.g., on an upper surface 516 s of the FEOLinterlayer interconnect structure). The single layer 1151 or multiplevertically stacked layers 1150 are not glued, soldered, wafer bonded, orotherwise physically or electrically connected with the base layer die506, instead they are grown directly on top of the base layer die 506 sothat they are integrally connected with the base layer die 506 and withone another, are electrically coupled with the circuitry in the FEOLlogic layer 508, thereby forming a unitary integrated circuit die 1199that includes monolithically integrated FEOL and BEOL portions (e.g.,inseparable FEOL circuitry and BEOL memory portions). Wafer 1170includes a plurality of the base layer die 506 (see 506 in FIGS. 5-6)formed individually on wafer 1170 as part of the FEOL process. As partof the FEOL processing, the base layer die 506 may be tested 1172 todetermine their electrical characteristics, functionality, yield,performance grading, etc. After all FEOL processes have been completed,the wafer 1170 is optionally transported 1104 for subsequent BEOLprocessing (e.g., adding one or more layers of memory such as singlelayer 1151 or multiple layers 1150) directly on top of each base layerdie 506. A base layer die 506 is depicted in cross-sectional view alonga dashed line FF-FF where a substrate (e.g., a silicon Si wafer) for thedie 506 and its associated active circuitry in logic layer 508 have beenpreviously fabricated FEOL and are positioned along the −Z axis. Forexample, the one or more layers of memory (e.g., 1151 or 1150) are growndirectly on top of an upper surface 516 s of each base layer die 506 aspart of the subsequent BEOL processing. Upper layer 516 s can be anupper planar surface of the aforementioned interlayer interconnectstructure operative as a foundation for subsequent BEOL fabrication ofthe memory layers along the +Z axis.

During BEOL processing the wafer 1170 is denoted as wafer 1170′, whichis the same wafer subjected to additional processing to fabricate thememory layer(s) and their associated memory elements directly on top ofthe base layer die 506. Base layer die 506 that failed testing may beidentified either visually (e.g., by marking) or electronically (e.g.,in a file, database, email, etc.) and communicated to the BEOLfabricator and/or fabrication facility. Similarly, performance gradedbase layer die 506 (e.g., graded as to frequency of operation) mayidentified and communicated to BEOL the fabricator and/or fabricationfacility. In some applications the FEOL and BEOL processing can beimplemented by the same fabricator or performed at the same fabricationfacility. Accordingly, the transport 1104 may not be necessary and thewafer 1170 can continue to be processed as the wafer 1170′. The BEOLprocess forms the aforementioned memory elements and memory layer(s)directly on top of the base layer die 506 to form a finished die 1199that includes the FEOL circuitry portion 508 along the −Z axis and theBEOL memory portion along the +Z axis. For example, the memory elements(e.g., 104, 304, 1100, or 1202) and their associated WLs and LBLs can befabricated during the BEOL processing. The types of memory elements thatcan be fabricated BEOL are not limited to those described herein and thematerials for the memory elements are not limited to the memory elementmaterials described herein. A cross-sectional view along a dashed lineBB-BB depicts a memory device die 1199 with a single layer of memory1151 grown (e.g., fabricated) directly on top of base die 506 along the+Z axis, and alternatively, another memory device die 1199 with threevertically stacked layers of memory 1150 grown (e.g., fabricated)directly on top of base die 506 along the +Z. Finished die 1199 on wafer1170′ may be tested 1174 and good and/or bad die identified.Subsequently, the wafer 1170′ can be singulated 1178 to remove die 1199(e.g., die 1199 are precision cut or sawed from wafer 1170′) to formindividual memory device die 1199. The singulated die 1199 maysubsequently be packaged 1179 to form an integrated circuit chip 1190for mounting to a PC board or the like, as a component in an electricalsystem (not shown) that electrically accesses IC 1190 to perform dataoperations on BEOL memory. Here a package 1181 can include aninterconnect structure 1187 (e.g., pins, solder balls, or solder bumps)and the die 1199 mounted in the package 1181 and electrically coupled1183 with the interconnect structure 1187 (e.g., using wire bonding orsoldering). The integrated circuits 1190 (IC 1190 hereinafter) mayundergo additional testing 1185 to ensure functionality and yield. Thedie 1199 or the IC 1190 can be used in any system requiring non-volatilememory and can be used to emulate a variety of memory types includingbut not limited to SRAM, DRAM, ROM, and Flash. Unlike conventional Flashnon-volatile memory, the die 1199 and/or the IC's 1190 do not require anerase operation or a block erase operation prior to a write operation sothe latency associated with conventional Flash memory erase operationsis eliminated and the latency associated with Flash OS and/or Flash filesystem required for managing the erase operation is eliminated. Randomaccess data operations to the die 1199 and/or the IC's 1190 can beimplemented with a granularity of 1-bit (e.g., a single memory element)or more (e.g., a page or block of memory elements). Moreover, a batteryback-up power source or other AC or DC power source is not required toretain data stored in the memory elements embedded in each memory layer(1151 or 1150) because the memory is non-volatile and retains storeddata in the absence of electrical power. Another application for theIC's 1190 is as a replacement for conventional Flash-based non-volatilememory in embedded memory, solid state drives (SSD's), hard disc drives(HDD's), or cache memory, for example.

FIG. 11F graphically depicts one example of a non-linear I-Vcharacteristic 1180 for a discrete re-writeable non-volatiletwo-terminal resistive memory element (e.g., the memory element 104,304, 804, 1100 of FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11A-11D, 12, and 14-15)having integral selectivity due to its non-linear I-V characteristicsand the non-linear I-V characteristic is maintained regardless of thevalue of the data stored in the memory cell, that is the I-Vcharacteristic of the memory element does not change from non-linear tolinear as a function of the resistive state stored in the memoryelement. Therefore, the non-linear I-V characteristic of the memoryelement is non-linear for all values of stored data (e.g., resistivestates). Voltage V applied across the memory element is plotted on theY-axis and current density J through the memory element is plotted onthe X-axis. Here, current through the memory element is a non-linearfunction of the applied voltage across the memory element. Accordingly,when voltages for data operations (e.g., read and write voltages) areapplied across the memory element, current flow through the memoryelement does not significantly increase until after a voltage magnitudeof about 2.0V (e.g., at ≈0.2 A/cm²) is reached (e.g., a read voltage ofabout 2.0V across the memory element). An approximate doubling of thevoltage magnitude to about 4.0V does not double the current flow andresults in a current flow of 0.3 A/cm². The graph depicted is only anexample and actual non-linear I-V characteristics will be applicationdependent and will depend on factors including but not limited to anarea of the memory element (e.g., area determines the current density J)and the thin-film materials used in the memory element, just to name afew. The area of the memory element will be application dependent. Here,the non-linear I-V characteristic of the discrete memory element appliesto both positive and negative values of applied voltage as depicted bythe non-linear I-V curves in the two quadrants of the non-linear I-Vcharacteristic 1180.

One advantage of a discrete re-writeable non-volatile two-terminalresistive memory element that has integral selectivity due to anon-linear I-V characteristic is that when the memory element ishalf-selected (e.g., one-half of the magnitude of a read voltage or awrite voltage is applied across the memory element) during a dataoperation to a selected memory cell(s), the non-linear I-Vcharacteristic is operative as an integral quasi-selection device andcurrent flow through the memory element is reduced compared to a memorycell with a linear I-V characteristic. Therefore, a non-linear I-Vcharacteristic can reduce data disturbs to the value of the resistivestate stored in the memory element when the memory element isun-selected or is half-selected.

FIGS. 12-15 are drawings illustrating how a memory element 1202 in amemory array section 1200 may be read, programmed and erased. In thedescription of FIGS. 12-15 that follows, the memory element 1202 isreferred to as the “selected” memory element 1202, to emphasize that itis the memory element that is being read from or written to. A memoryelement that has only one of its terminals electrically coupled with aselected WL or selected LBL during a read, program or erase operation ofthe selected memory element 1202 is referred to as a “half-selected”memory element. And a memory element that has neither of its terminalselectrically coupled with a selected WL or selected LBL during a read,program or erase operation of the selected memory element 1202 isreferred to as an “unselected” memory element. It should be emphasizedthat, whereas FIGS. 12-15 and accompanying description demonstrate howdata may be read, programmed and erased on a bit basis, nibbles, bytes,words or higher-bit group of data may also or alternatively be read,programmed or erased simultaneously in a single read, program or eraseoperation.

FIG. 12 illustrates how the selected memory element 1202 is read duringa read operation. In preparation for the read operation, all of the passgate transistors 204 of the LBLs are turned off by applying a pass gatevoltage (e.g., 0V or less) to the gates of the pass gate transistors204. The LBL associated with the selected memory element 1202 (e.g., LBLY0-0<0>) is then discharged and biased to a bias voltage Vbias throughall the memory elements 104 on the rows (i.e., WLs) associated with theLBL Y0-0<0>. Vbias is set to have a value greater than or equal to thethreshold voltage Vt of the gain stage transistor 206 of LBL Y0-0<0>, sothat the gain stage transistor 206 of LBL Y0-0<0> remains in its desiredoperating range during the read operation. In one embodiment of theinvention, Vbias can be generated from a transistor-based reference thattracks variations in a threshold voltage Vt, such as may occur due toprocess, voltage and temperature variations, for example, and iscapacitively coupled to LBL Y0-0<0> and the gate of its gain stagetransistor 206 via one of the un-selected or half-selected WLs, such ashalf-selected WL 1206 in FIG. 12.

After or before LBL Y0-0<0> is biased to Vbias, the GBL associated withthe selected memory element 1202 (e.g., GBL0) is precharged to somepredetermined positive voltage (e.g., 1.2V) and is then allowed tofloat. After GBL0 has been precharged, a voltage Vread+Vbias (e.g.,1.5V) is applied to the selected WL 1204 and an unselect voltage (e.g.,0V) is applied to unselected WLs 1208 and 1210. The applied voltageresults in the read voltage Vread being dropped across the selectedmemory element 1202, causing current to pass through the selected memoryelement 1202 and charge the capacitance on LBL Y0-0<0>. As the LBLcapacitance charges up, a voltage Vlbl develops on LBL Y0-0<0> thatincreases toward a final value of Vread+Vbias. As the voltage Vlbl onLBL Y0-0<0> increases, the capacitance Cgbl0 of GBL0 discharges throughthe gain stage transistor 206, and the voltage Vgbl0 on GBL0 decreasesfrom its precharged level at an approximate rate of:dVgbl0/dt=k(Vlbl−Vt)²/Cgbl0, where k is a process constant of the gainstage transistor 206.

The charging of LBL Y0-0<0> and discharging of GBL0 during the readoperation result in the voltage versus time profiles shown in FIG. 13.The voltage Vgbl0 on GBL0 decreases more rapidly (see profile 1310) andthe voltage Vlbl on LBL Y0-0<0> increases more rapidly (see profile1320) if the selected memory element 1202 is in a low-resistance statecompared to if in a high-resistance state. This difference in voltageprofiles allow a sense amplifier or other measuring circuit to determinewhether the selected memory element 1202 is in an erased state or in aprogrammed state and, therefore, whether the selected memory element1202 is storing a logic “0” or a logic “1.”

Using the pass gate 204 and gain stage transistor 206 in the mannerdescribed above affords the ability to read the selected memory element1202 in a short period of time. By turning the pass gate 204 of LBLY0-0<0> off during the read operation, LBL Y0-0<0> is isolated fromGBL0. This allows LBL Y0-0<0> to charge up faster than it could if itwere electrically coupled with GBL0, since with the pass gate 204 off,the charge-up time of LBL Y0-0<0> is independent of the capacitanceCgbl0 of GBL0. The gain stage transistor 206 also helps to achieve afast read speed since it operates as a voltage amplifier, amplifying thevoltage on local bit line which is a result of current flow through thememory element 1202, which may be on the order of a nanoampere, to amuch higher current (perhaps on the order of a microampere) on GBL0. Thehigher current allows the capacitance Cgbl0 of GBL0 to discharge at afast rate, thereby allowing the selected memory element 1202 to be readin a short period of time.

FIG. 14 illustrates how the selected memory element 1202 is programmedduring a program operation. GBL0 is first pre-charged to somepredetermined negative voltage Vgbl0 (e.g., −1V) and GBL1 is allowed tofloat. The pass gates 204 of the LBLs associated with the unselected WLs1208 and 1210 (e.g., the pass gates 204 associated with LBLs Y0-0<1> andY0-1<1>) are then turned off by applying an off voltage (e.g., −1V) totheir gates. An unselect voltage (e.g., −1V) is applied to unselectedWLs 1208 and 1210. This voltage is also coupled to the gates of the gainstage transistors 206 associated with the unselected WLs 1208 and 1210,ensuring that the gain stage transistors 206 associated with theunselected WLs 1208 and 1210 remain disabled during the programoperation.

The gain stage transistor 206 of LBL Y0-0<0> is also disabled by biasingthe gate and source of the gain stage transistor 206 so that itsgate-to-source voltage always remains below Vt during the programoperation. A voltage signal comprising one or more pulses (e.g., one ormore +2V pulses) is then applied to the selected WL 1204 and oneterminal of the selected memory element 1202. Because the pass gate 204of LBL Y0-0<0> is on, the voltage Vgbl0 on GBL0 is passed through thepass gate to the other terminal of the selected memory element 1202.This results in a series of program voltage pulses Vprog (+3V pulses inthis example) being dropped across the selected memory element 1202. Inembodiments of the invention in which a CMO-based memory element is usedto implement the memory elements 104, the Vprog pulses create a pulsedelectric field (e.g., E2) that forces at least a portion of the mobileoxygen ions 1105 from the memory element's CMO layer 1102 into thememory element's IMO layer 1104 and causes the CMO-based memory element1202 to conform to a high-resistance, programmed state, as was explainedabove in reference to FIGS. 11A and 11B. Following the programoperation, a read operation, like that described above, can optionallybe performed to verify that the selected memory element has beenprogrammed to the desired high-resistance state. If the read operationdetermines that the selected memory element 1202 has not been fullyprogrammed, the program operation can be repeated until the desiredhigh-resistance, program state is achieved.

Finally, FIG. 15 shows the array portion 1200 and selected memoryelement 1202 during an erase operation. The erase operation is similarto the program operation, except that the voltage pulses applied acrossthe selected memory element 1202 are of a reverse polarity. GBL0 isprecharged to a positive voltage Vgbl0 (e.g., 1V). An unselect voltage(e.g., 0V) is applied to unselected WLs 1208 and 1210. This voltage isalso coupled to the gates of the gain stage transistors 206 associatedwith the unselected WLs 1208 and 1210, ensuring that the gain stagetransistors 206 associated with the unselected WLs 1208 and 1210 remaindisabled during the erase operation. The pass gates 204 of the LBLsassociated with the unselected WLs 1208 and 1210 (e.g., the pass gates204 associated with LBLs Y0-0<1> and Y0-1<1>) are also turned off byapplying an off voltage (e.g., 0V) to their gates.

The gain stage transistor 206 of LBL Y0-0<0> is disabled by biasing thegate and source of the gain stage transistor 206 so that itsgate-to-source voltage always remains below Vt during the eraseoperation. A voltage signal comprising one or more pulses (e.g., one ormore −2V pulses) is applied to the selected WL 1204 and one terminal ofthe selected memory element 1202. Because the pass gate 204 of LBLY0-0<0> is turned on, the voltage Vgbl0 on GBL0 is passed through thepass gate 204 to the other terminal of the selected memory element 1202.This results in a series of voltage pulses Verase (−3V pulses in thisexample) being dropped across the selected memory element 1202. Inembodiments of the invention in which a CMO-based memory element is usedto implement the memory elements 104, the Verase pulses create a pulsedelectric field (e.g., E1) that forces the portion of mobile oxygen ions1105 from the memory element's IMO layer 1104 into the memory element'sCMO layer 1102 and causes the CMO-based memory element 1202 to conformto a low-resistance, erased state. Following the erase operation, a readoperation, like that describe above, can optionally be performed toverify that the selected memory element 1202 has been erased to thedesired low-resistance state. If the read operation determines that theselected memory element 1202 has not been fully erased, the eraseoperation can be repeated until the desired low-resistance, erase stateis achieved.

Compensating for Process, Operating Voltage, and Temperature Variations

Process, operating temperature, and temperature (PVT) variations cancause uncertainties in sense timing and sense margin of a readoperation. Referring to FIG. 2, the speed and magnitude at which the GBLdischarges is dependent on both the current capability of the gain stagetransistor 206, the signal generated on the local bit line (LBL 106),and the current capability of the pass gate/gain stage block 202. If thepass gate/gain stage block 202 conducts a fixed amount of currentregardless of the current capability of the gain stage transistor 206,the speed and magnitude at which the GBL discharges may beunpredictable.

In order to improve the operating margin of the memory array of FIG. 1,the global bit line and/or the selected local bit line can be biased bythe sense and control circuitry 402 (FIG. 4) to compensate for the PVTvariation. FIG. 16 is a flow chart illustrating an example process forcompensating for process, operating voltage, and temperature variationsin the memory array of FIG. 1.

In block 1601, a selected local bit line, e.g., LBL 106 (FIG. 2), of aplurality of local bit lines is precharged to a voltage that varies withthe preset transistor parameters of the respective gain stagetransistor, e.g., gain stage transistor 206 (FIG. 2), of a plurality ofgain stage transistors. It should be appreciated that the gain stagetransistor 206 (FIG. 2) has, e.g., a particular voltage threshold that,due to PVT variation, may be different than a particular voltagethreshold of another one of the gain stage transistors of the memoryarray and that may differ from time to time during array operation. Theselected local bit line is precharged to a voltage that corresponds,e.g., with the particular voltage threshold of the one of the gain stagetransistors of the memory array that corresponds to the selected localbit line, at a time that the read is to be performed.

Another selected local bit line of the plurality of local bit lines maybe, coincident with precharging the first selected local bit line,precharged to a different voltage that, e.g., corresponds with a voltagethreshold of a different gain stage transistor of the plurality of gainstage transistors. The resulting precharge voltages of the two selectedlocal bit lines may be different values.

In an example, a write transistor of the memory array, e.g., pass gatetransistor 204 (FIG. 2), is activated to short the selected local bitline to its corresponding global bit line. Responsive to said shorting,a preset current is applied to the global bit line to bias the gainstage transistor 206 (FIG. 2) to, e.g., a voltage that corresponds withthe gain stage transistor voltage threshold. In an example, a value ofthe preset current is in correspondence with a value of a read currentassociated with a memory cell to be accessed via the selected local bitline, e.g., one of the memory elements 10.

In an example, a word line that corresponds to the selected local bitline is floated at a time that the preset current is applied in order toprecharge the selected local bit line to the precharge voltage. Forexample, the word lines WL0-WLK may be floated in order to precharge LBL106.

In block 1602, after the precharge, a voltage is applied to a word lineof the memory array, e.g., a word line of the word lines WL0-WLK, toread a memory cell, e.g., one of the memory elements 104.

In an example, after applying the preset current to the global bit line,the write transistor is deactivated to trap a charge on the selectedlocal bit line. In an example, after deactivating the write transistor,the global bit line is precharged with a voltage that coincides with theread voltage associated with the memory cell.

In an example, another memory array write transistor, which also couplesto the selected global bit line, is held inactive while the selectedwrite transistor is activated. For example, referring to FIG. 1, thepass gate transistors coupled to all but the topmost pass gate controlline 112 are held inactive while the topmost pass gate control line 112is asserted.

It should be appreciated that the processes described above may beimplemented by using a controller coupled to the memory array (andcomponents thereof), e.g., as shown in FIG. 4.

FIG. 17 is a flow chart illustrating another example process forcompensating for process, operating voltage, and temperature variationsin the memory array of FIG. 1 by precharging a selected local bit line,e.g., in dependence upon a voltage threshold of a respective gain stagetransistor.

In block 1701, a write transistor of the memory array, e.g., pass gatetransistor 204 (FIG. 2), is activated to short the selected local bitline, e.g., LBL 106 (FIG. 2) to its respective global bit line, e.g.,GLB (FIG. 2). Responsive to said shorting, a preset current is appliedto the global bit line to bias the gain stage transistor, e.g.,transistor 206 (FIG. 2), to, e.g., a voltage that corresponds with thevoltage threshold of that transistor.

In block 1702, the write transistor is deactivated to trap a charge onthe selected local bit line, and the preset current is removed from theglobal bit line.

In block 1703, a voltage is applied to a word line of the memory array,e.g., one of the word lines WL0-WLK, to read a memory cell, e.g., one ofthe memory elements 104.

It should be appreciated that the processes described above may beimplemented by using a controller coupled to the memory array (andcomponents thereof), e.g., as shown in FIG. 4.

FIGS. 18A-D illustrates a sequence of steps to compensate for PVTvariation in a memory array with local bit lines and local-to-globalbitline pass gates and gain stages in accordance with the exampleprocess of FIG. 17. Referring to FIG. 18A, a current preset is appliedto each of the selected global bit lines and a local bit line of thegain stage transistor M1 is biased to a corresponding voltage thresholdof M1 and a local bit line of the gain stage transistor M2 is biased toa corresponding voltage threshold of M2, which may be different than thevoltage threshold of M1 due to PVT variation. Referring to FIG. 18B, theprecharge voltages are trapped by turning off the pass gate transistorscorresponding to gain stage transistors M1 and M2. Referring to FIG.18C, the global bit lines are charged, while the local bit lines of thegain stage transistors M1 and M2 are floated. Referring to FIG. 18D, amemory access, e.g., a read operation, may be performed (a selected wordline connected to the local bit line are pulled to a first voltage,e.g., 1.5 volts, and unselected word lines(s) are pulled to a differentvoltage, e.g., 0.5 volts).

One of skill in the art will recognize that the concepts taught hereincan be tailored to a particular application in many other ways. Inparticular, those skilled in the art will recognize that the illustratedexamples are but one of many alternative implementations that willbecome apparent upon reading this disclosure.

Although the specification may refer to “an”, “one”, “another”, or“some” example(s) in several locations, this does not necessarily meanthat each such reference is to the same example(s), or that the featureonly applies to a single example.

What is claimed is:
 1. A non-volatile memory device, comprising: aplurality of wordlines (WLs); a plurality of local bitlines (LBLs)selectively electrically coupled with a plurality of global bit lines(GBLs); and a plurality of re-writable non-volatile two-terminal memoryelements, each memory element positioned between a cross-point of one ofthe plurality of WLs with one of the plurality of LBLs and each memoryelement electrically coupled in series with its respective WL and LBL.2. The device of claim 1, further comprising an amplifier coupled with aLBL associated with a selected re-writable non-volatile two-terminalmemory element and a GBL associated with the selected re-writablenon-volatile two-terminal memory element, the amplifier to produce anamplified signal on or along the GBL.
 3. The device of claim 2, wherein,during a read operation, a magnitude of the amplified signal isdependent upon a memory state of the selected re-writable non-volatiletwo-terminal memory element.
 4. The device of claim 2, wherein, during aread operation, a magnitude of the amplified signal is dependent upon aresistive state of the selected re-writable non-volatile two-terminalmemory element.
 5. The device of claim 1, further comprising a pluralityof switching devices configured to selectively electrically couple LBLsincluded in the plurality of LBLs with GBLs included in the plurality ofGBLs.
 6. The device of claim 5, wherein the plurality of switchingdevices comprises a plurality of pass gate transistors.
 7. The device ofclaim 1, further comprising a switching device to couple an LBL to anassociated GBL during times when a selected re-writable non-volatiletwo-terminal memory element associated with the LBL is being programmedor erased, and is configured to isolate the LBL from its associated GBLduring times when the selected re-writable non-volatile two-terminalmemory element is being read.
 8. The device of claim 1, wherein each ofthe plurality of re-writable non-volatile two-terminal memory elementsis configurable to two or more resistive states.
 9. The device of claim8, wherein each of the plurality of re-writable non-volatiletwo-terminal memory elements comprises at least one layer of aconductive metal oxide (CMO) including mobile oxygen and an insulatingmetal oxide (IMO) in contact with the CMO and having a thickness lessthan approximately 50 Angstroms.
 10. The device of claim 1, wherein theplurality of WLs, the plurality of LBLs and the plurality of re-writablenon-volatile two-terminal memory elements are arranged in multiple WLlayers, multiple LBL layers and multiple memory layers, respectively.11. The device of claim 10, wherein LBLs included in the plurality ofLBLs are configured to extend through two or more memory layers and areassociated with WL groups comprised of WLs of WL subgroups from two ormore WL layers and re-writable non-volatile two-terminal memory elementsfrom two or more memory layers.
 12. The device of claim 10, wherein theplurality of WLs, the plurality of LBLs, and the plurality ofre-writable non-volatile two-terminal memory elements are configured inat least one two-terminal cross-point array.
 13. The device of claim 1,wherein the plurality of WLs, the plurality of LBLs, and the pluralityof re-writable non-volatile two-terminal memory elements are configuredin at least one two-terminal cross-point array.
 14. The device of claim1, wherein a write operation to one or more of the plurality ofre-writable non-volatile two-terminal memory elements does not require aprior erase operation.
 15. A non-volatile memory, comprising: aplurality of global bitlines (GBLs); a cross-point memory arrayincluding a plurality of wordlines (WLs) and a plurality of memory arrayportions, each memory array portion being selectively electricallycoupled with one of the plurality of GBLs, and each memory array portionincluding: a local bitline (LBL); and a plurality of re-writablenon-volatile two-terminal memory elements positioned between across-point of the LBL and a word line (WL) of a WL group from theplurality of WLs, each memory element configured to store at least onebit of data; and logic circuitry configured to perform data operationson one or more of the plurality of re-writable non-volatile two-terminalmemory elements of the cross-point memory array.
 16. The memory of claim15, further comprising an amplifier electrically coupled with the LBLand an associated GBL, the amplifier to produce an amplified signal onor along the associated GBL.
 17. The memory of claim 16, wherein duringa read operation the amplifier is configured to produce the amplifiedsignal on or along the associated GBL with a magnitude that is dependentupon a memory state of a selected re-writable non-volatile two-terminalmemory element.
 18. The memory of claim 16, wherein during a readoperation the amplifier is configured to produce the amplified signal onor along the associated GBL with a magnitude that is dependent upon aresistive state of a selected re-writable non-volatile two-terminalmemory element.
 19. The memory of claim 15, wherein each memory arrayportion further includes a switching device configured to couple an LBLof the memory array portion to an associated GBL during erase andprogram operations and isolate the LBL from the associated GBL duringread operations.
 20. The memory of claim 15, wherein the cross-pointmemory array comprises a multi-layer memory array including a pluralityof memory layers and a plurality of WL layers, and LBLs of the memoryarray portions are configured to extend through two or more memorylayers.
 21. The memory of claim 15, wherein the plurality of re-writablenon-volatile two-terminal memory elements are individually addressablefor data operations on a basis of at least a single bit.